Things to learn about the Tudor England and Shakespeare (Packet 1 of 12)

1. Wars of the Roses

A series of wars for control of the throne of England. They were fought between supporters of two rival branches of the royal House of Plantagenet, those of Lancaster and York. They were fought in several sporadic episodes between 1455 and 1487, although there was related fighting before and after this period. The conflict resulted from social and financial troubles that followed the Hundred Years' War, combined with the mental infirmity and weak rule of Henry VI which revived interest in Richard, Duke of York's claim to the throne. The final victory went to a claimant of the Lancastrian party, Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, who defeated the last Yorkist king Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field.

2. House of Lancaster

A branch of the Plantagenet House of England, represented by a red rose. The descendants of the third son of Edward III, John of Gaunt. John inherited the title when he married into money and the Lancaster title. When John’s young nephew Richard (son of Edward, the Black Prince) became king of England as Richard II, he helped guide his nephew. Later, however, John’s son Henry usurped the throne from his cousin, becoming Henry IV and officially starting the branch of the Plantagenet house.

3. House of York

A branch of the Plantagenet House of England represented by a white rose. The descendants of the second and fourth sons of Edward III, they kicked off the Wars of the Roses when Edward IV took control of England from Henry VI in 1455, shortly after the end of the Hundred Years’ War. Edward IV was a strong leader, but after he death, his brother Richard seized power from his young son, becoming Richard III. Richard stayed in power for only two years before losing power to Henry Tudor, who unified the houses by marrying Edward’s daughter Elizabeth.

4. Henry Bolingbroke

The son of John of Gaunt, he was the first cousin of King Richard II. The two grew up together, but it didn’t stop him from helping in a rebellion against Richard in 1387. Richard did not execute him like most of the other participants, which proved to be a fatal mistake. In 1399, with the help of Thomas Arundel, the exiled Archbishop of Canterbury, he seized the throne from Richard, becoming Henry IV. He put Richard in jail, where he died mysteriously. He became the first Lancaster King of England.

5. Battle of Agincourt

A major English victory in the Hundred Years' War. The battle took place on Friday, 25 October 1415 (Saint Crispin's Day), near Azincourt, in northern France. Henry V's victory at Agincourt, against a numerically superior French army, crippled France and started a new period in the war during which Henry V married the French king's daughter, Catherine of Valois, and their son, later Henry VI of England and Henry II of France, was made heir to the throne of France as well as of England. Henry V led his troops into battle and participated in hand-to-hand fighting.
This battle is notable for the use of the English longbow in very large numbers, with English and Welsh archers forming most of Henry's army. The battle is the centrepiece of the play Henry V by William Shakespeare.

6. Henry VI

The King of England from 1422 to 1461 and again from 1470 to 1471, and disputed King of France from 1422 to 1453. The only child of Henry V, he succeeded to the English throne at the age of nine months upon his father's death, and succeeded to the French throne on the death of his grandfather Charles VI shortly afterwards. He inherited a long-running conflict in France, known as the Hundred Years War (1337-1453) where Charles VII contested his claim to the French throne. He married Charles's niece, Margaret of Anjou, partially in the hope of achieving peace in 1445, but the policy failed, leading to the murder of William de la Pole, one of Henry's key advisors. The war recommenced, with France taking the upper hand; by 1453, Calais was Henry's only remaining territory on the continent. He experienced a mental breakdown after the failure of the war, with Richard of York taking control of the government as regent until his recovery the following year. Civil war broke out in 1460, leading to a long period of dynastic conflict known as the Wars of the Roses. He was taken prisoner by Richard of York at Northampton on July 10, 1460 but was rescued that December by forces loyal to Margaret. He was deposed on March 29, 1461 following the victory at Towton by Richard's son, who took the throne as Edward IV. He was suffering from another breakdown and, despite Margaret continuing to lead a resistance to Edward, he was captured by his forces in 1465 and imprisoned in the Tower of London. Richard Neville, the Earl of Warwick, restored him to the throne in 1470, but Edward defeated Neville and retook power in 1471, imprisoning him in the Tower once again. He died in the Tower during the night of May 21, 1471, possibly killed on the orders of Edward.

7. Catherine of Valois

The queen consort of England from 1420 until 1422. A daughter of Charles VI of France, she married Henry V of England, and gave birth to his heir Henry VI of England. Her liaison (and possible secret marriage) with Owen Tudor proved the springboard of that family's fortunes, eventually leading to their grandson's elevation as Henry VII of England.

8. Joan D’Arc

Nicknamed "The Maid of Orléans" is considered a heroine of France for her role during the Lancastrian phase of the Hundred Years' War, and was canonized as a Roman Catholic saint. She said she received visions of the Archangel Michael, Saint Margaret, and Saint Catherine of Alexandria instructing her to support Charles VII and recover France from English domination late in the Hundred Years' War. The uncrowned King Charles VII sent her to the siege of Orléans as part of a relief mission. She gained prominence after the siege was lifted only nine days later. Several additional swift victories led to Charles VII's coronation at Reims. This long-awaited event boosted French morale and paved the way for the final French victory. On May 23, 1430, she was captured at Compiègne by the Burgundian faction, which was allied with the English. She was later handed over to the English and put on trial by the pro-English Bishop of Beauvais Pierre Cauchon on a variety of charges. After Cauchon declared her guilty she was burned at the stake on May 30, 1431, dying at about nineteen years of age

    9. Charles VII

a monarch of the House of Valois who ruled as King of France from 1422 to his death in 1461. In the midst of the Hundred Years' War, he inherited the throne of France under desperate circumstances. Forces of the Kingdom of England and the Duchy of Burgundy occupied Guyenne and northern France, including Paris, the most populous city, and Reims, the city in which the French kings were traditionally crowned. In addition, his father Charles VI the Mad had disinherited him in 1420 and recognized Henry V of England and his heirs as the legitimate successors of the French crown instead. With his court removed to Bourges, south of the Loire River, he was disparagingly called the “King of Bourges”, because the area around this city was one of the few remaining regions left to him. However, his political and military position improved dramatically with the emergence of Joan of Arc as a spiritual leader in France. Joan of Arc and other charismatic figures led French troops to lift the siege of Orleans, as well as other strategic cities on the Loire river, and to crush the English at the battle of Patay. With the local English troops dispersed, the people of Reims switched allegiance and opened their gates, which enabled his coronation  in 1429 at Reims Cathedral. This long-awaited event boosted French morale as hostilities with England resumed. Following the battle of Castillon in 1453, the French had expelled the English from all their continental possessions except for the Pale of Calais.

    10. Richard of York

A leading English baron, a great-grandson of King Edward III through his father, and a great-great-great-grandson of the same king through his mother. He inherited vast estates and served in various offices of state in Ireland, France, and England, a country he ultimately governed as Lord Protector during the madness of King Henry VI. His conflicts with Henry's wife, Margaret of Anjou, and other members of Henry's court, as well as his competing claim on the throne, were a leading factor in the political upheaval of mid-fifteenth-century England, and a major cause of the Wars of the Roses. He eventually attempted to take the throne, but was dissuaded, although it was agreed that he would become king on Henry's death. But within a few weeks of securing this agreement, he died in battle. Although he never became king himself, he was the father of King Edward IV and King Richard III.

11. Edward IV

The King of England from March 4, 1461 until  October 3, 1470, and again from April 11, 1471 until his death in 1483. He was the first Yorkist King of England. The first half of his rule was marred by the violence associated with the Wars of the Roses, but he overcame the Lancastrian challenge to the throne at Tewkesbury in 1471 to reign in peace until his sudden death

12. The Princes in the Tower

An expression frequently used to refer to Edward V of England and Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York. The two brothers were the only sons of Edward IV of England and Elizabeth Woodville surviving at the time of their father's death in 1483. Then 12 and 9 years old, they were lodged in the Tower of London by the man appointed to look after them, their uncle, the Lord Protector: Richard, Duke of Gloucester. This was supposed to be in preparation for Edward's coronation as king. However, Richard took the throne for himself and the boys disappeared. It is unclear what happened to the boys after they disappeared in the Tower. It is generally assumed that they were murdered and the most common theory is that they were murdered by Richard in an attempt to secure his hold on the throne. The murder may have occurred some time around 1483, but apart from their disappearance, the only evidence is circumstantial. As a result, a number of other theories about what happened to them have been put forward, including the suggestion that they might have been murdered by Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham or Henry VII, among others. It has also been suggested that one or both princes may have escaped assassination. In 1674 workmen at the Tower dug up a wooden box containing two small human skeletons. The bones were found in the ground near the White Tower, which is close to one reported site of their burial. The bones were widely accepted at the time as those of the princes, but this has not been proven. King Charles II had the bones buried within Westminster Abbey.

13. Richard, Duke of Gloucester

King of England from 1483 until his death in 1485, at the age of 32, in the Battle of Bosworth Field. He was the last king of the House of York and the last of the Plantagenet dynasty. His defeat at Bosworth Field, the last decisive battle of the Wars of the Roses, marked the end of the Middle Ages in England. He is the subject of the historical play Richard III by William Shakespeare. When his brother King Edward IV died in April 1483, Richard was named Lord Protector of the realm for Edward's son and successor, the 12-year-old Edward V. As the young king traveled to London from Ludlow, Richard met and escorted him to lodgings in the Tower of London, where Edward V's own brother Richard of Shrewsbury joined him shortly afterwards. Arrangements were made for Edward's coronation on June 22, 1483; but, before the young king could be crowned, his father's marriage to his mother Elizabeth Woodville was declared invalid, making their children illegitimate and ineligible for the throne. On June 25, an assembly of Lords and commoners endorsed the claims. The following day, Richard III began his reign, and he was crowned on July 6, 1483. The young princes were not seen in public after August, and accusations circulated that the boys had been murdered on Richard's orders, giving rise to the legend of the Princes in the Tower.

14. Battle of Bosworth Field

The last significant battle of the Wars of the Roses, the civil war between the Houses of Lancaster and York that raged across England in the latter half of the 15th century. Fought on August 22, 1485, the battle was won by the Lancastrians. Their leader Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, by his victory became the first English monarch of the Tudor dynasty. His opponent, Richard III, the last king of the House of York, was killed in the battle. Historians consider Bosworth Field to mark the end of the Plantagenet dynasty, making it a defining moment of English and Welsh history. It also marks the last time that an English king died in battle.

15. Henry VII

King of England after seizing the crown on August 22, 1485 until his death in 1509. The first monarch of the House of Tudor. He won the throne when his forces defeated King Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field, the culmination of the Wars of the Roses. He was the last king of England to win his throne on the field of battle. He cemented his claim by marrying Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV and niece of Richard III. He was successful in restoring the power and stability of the English monarchy after the civil war, and after a reign of nearly 24 years, he was peacefully succeeded by his son, Henry VIII.

16. Henry VIII
Perhaps the most famous English monarch, he was the second Tudor king of England. The television show The Tudors centers around his reign. is known for his consequential role in the separation of the Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church, besides his six marriages and many extramarital affairs, as well as his effort to obtain an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, which led to conflict with the Pope. His disagreements with the Pope led him to separate the Church of England from papal authority, with himself as king and as the Supreme Head of the Church of England; the disputes also led to the Dissolution of the Monasteries. He oversaw the legal union of England and Wales with the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. Domestically, he is known for his radical changes to the English Constitution, ushering in the theory of the divine right of kings to England. Besides asserting the sovereign's supremacy over the Church of England, thus initiating the English Reformation, he greatly expanded royal power. Charges of treason and heresy were commonly used to quash dissent, and those accused were often executed without a formal trial, by means of bills of attainder. He achieved many of his political aims through the work of his chief ministers, some of whom were banished or executed when they fell out of his favor. People such as Thomas Wolsey, Thomas More, Thomas Cromwell, Richard Rich, and Thomas Cranmer figured prominently in his administration.

17. Anglican Church

The Church of England, one of the first to split from the Catholic Church. The church dates its establishment to the 6th-century Gregorian mission in Kent led by Augustine of Canterbury. The English church renounced papal authority when Henry VIII sought to secure an annulment from Catherine of Aragon in the 1530s. The English Reformation accelerated under Edward VI's regents before a brief restoration of Catholicism under Queen Mary I and King Philip. The Act of Supremacy 1558 renewed the breach and the Elizabethan Settlement charted a course whereby the English church was to be both Catholic and Reformed:

    ~ Catholic in that it views itself as a part of the universal church of Jesus Christ in unbroken continuity with the early apostolic church. This is expressed in its emphasis on the teachings of the early Church Fathers, as formalised in the Apostles', Nicene, and Athanasian creeds.[9]
 
~ Reformed in that it has been shaped by some of the doctrinal principles of the 16th-century Protestant Reformation, in particular in the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion and the Book of Common Prayer.

18. Wives of Henry VIII
Henry VIII was married six times, largely due to his desire to have a male heir. The six women who were married to King Henry VIII were, in chronological order:

Catherine of Aragon (divorced, died while detained under guard at Kimbolton Castle, mother of Mary I)
 
 Anne Boleyn (executed, mother of Elizabeth I)

 Jane Seymour (died days after giving birth to Edward VI, believed to be caused by birth complications)

 Anne of Cleves (divorced, outlived the rest of the wives)

 Catherine Howard (executed)

 Catherine Parr (widowed)

Henry's first marriage lasted nearly 24 years, while the remaining five totaled less than 10 years combined.

19. Thomas More

An English lawyer, social philosopher, author, statesman and noted Renaissance humanist (1478-1535). He was also a councillor to Henry VIII, and Lord High Chancellor of England from October 1529 to May 1532. More opposed the Protestant Reformation, in particular the theology of Martin Luther and William Tyndale. He also wrote Utopia, published in 1516, about the political system of an imaginary ideal island nation. He opposed the King's separation from the Catholic Church, refusing to acknowledge Henry as Supreme Head of the Church of England and the annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. After refusing to take the Oath of Supremacy, he was convicted of treason and beheaded. Ahead of his execution, he was reported saying his famous words: "I die the King's good servant, but God's first."

20. Edward VI

King of England and Ireland from January 28, 1547 until his death. He was crowned on February 20 at the age of nine. The son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour, Edward was the third monarch of the Tudor dynasty and England's first monarch raised as a Protestant. During Edward's reign, the realm was governed by a Regency Council because he never reached his majority. Edward's reign was marked by economic problems and social unrest that, in 1549, erupted into riot and rebellion. An expensive war with Scotland, at first successful, ended with military withdrawal from Scotland as well as Boulogne-sur-Mer in exchange for peace. The transformation of the Church into a recognizably Protestant body also occurred under Edward, who took great interest in religious matters. It was during Edward's reign that Protestantism was established for the first time in England with reforms that included the abolition of clerical celibacy and the Mass and the imposition of compulsory services in English. The architect of these reforms was Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, whose Book of Common Prayer is still used.

21. Book of Common Prayer

the short title of a number of related prayer books used in the Anglican Communion, as well as by the Continuing Anglican, "Anglican realignment" and other Anglican churches. The original book, published in 1549 (Church of England 1957), in the reign of Edward VI, was a product of the English Reformation following the break with Rome.

22. Lady Jane Grey

An English noblewoman and de facto monarch of England and Ireland from July 10-19, 1553. The great-granddaughter of Henry VII through his younger daughter Mary, Jane was a first cousin once removed of Edward VI. In May 1553, she was married to Lord Guildford Dudley, a younger son of Edward's chief minister, John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland. When the 15-year-old king lay dying in June 1553, he nominated her as successor to the Crown in his will, thus subverting the claims of his half-sisters Mary and Elizabeth under the Third Succession Act. She was imprisoned in the Tower of London when the Privy Council decided to change sides and proclaim Mary as queen on 19 July 1553. Jane was convicted of high treason in November 1553, which carried a sentence of death, although her life was initially spared. Wyatt's rebellion of January and February 1554 against Queen Mary I's plans to marry Philip of Spain led to the execution of both Jane and her husband.

23. Mary I

the Queen of England and Ireland from July 1553 until her death in 1558. Her executions of Protestants led to the posthumous sobriquet "Bloody Mary". She was the only child of Henry VIII and his first wife Catherine of Aragon to survive to adulthood. Her younger half-brother Edward VI (son of Henry and Jane Seymour) succeeded their father in 1547. When Edward became mortally ill in 1553, he attempted to remove her from the line of succession because of religious differences. On his death their first cousin once removed, Lady Jane Grey, was proclaimed queen. She assembled a force in East Anglia and deposed Jane, who was ultimately beheaded. She was—excluding the disputed reigns of Jane and the Empress Matilda—the first queen regnant of England. In 1554, Mary married Philip of Spain, becoming queen consort of Habsburg Spain on his accession in 1556. As the fourth crowned monarch of the Tudor dynasty, she is remembered for her restoration of Roman Catholicism after her half-brother's short-lived Protestant reign. During her five-year reign, she had over 280 religious dissenters burned at the stake in the Marian persecutions. After her death in 1558, her re-establishment of Roman Catholicism was reversed by her younger half-sister and successor Elizabeth I, daughter of Henry and Anne Boleyn.

24. Elizabeth I

Queen of England and Ireland from November 17, 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana or Good Queen Bess, the childless queen was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. She was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, his second wife, who was executed two and a half years after her birth. Anne's marriage to Henry VIII was annulled, and she was declared illegitimate. Her half-brother, Edward VI, ruled until his death in 1553, bequeathing the crown to Lady Jane Grey and ignoring the claims of his two half-sisters, her and the Roman Catholic Mary, in spite of statute law to the contrary. Edward's will was set aside and Mary became queen, deposing Lady Jane Grey. During Mary's reign, she was imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels. In 1558, she succeeded her half-sister to the throne and set out to rule by good counsel. One of her first actions as queen was the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the Supreme Governor. In government, she was more moderate than her father and half-siblings had been In religion, she was relatively tolerant and avoided systematic persecution. After the pope declared her illegitimate in 1570 and released her subjects from obedience to her, several conspiracies threatened her life, all of which were defeated with the help of her ministers' secret service. She was cautious in foreign affairs, maneuvering between the major powers of France and Spain. By the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid war with Spain. England's defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 associated her with one of the greatest military victories in English history. Her reign is known as the Elizabethan era. The period is famous for the flourishing of English drama, led by playwrights such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe, and for the seafaring prowess of English adventurers such as Francis Drake. She is also known for the imprisonment of her cousin, Mary, Queen of Scots, whom she imprisoned in 1568 and had executed in 1587. Mary’s son James would eventually become king of England on Elizabeth’s death in 1603.

25. William Shakespeare

Living from 1564-1616, he was an English poet, playwright, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's national poet, and the "Bard of Avon". His works, including collaborations, consist of approximately 38 plays, 154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright. He was born and brought up in Stratford-on-Avon, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children. Sometime between 1585 and 1592, he began a successful career in London as an actor, writer, and part-owner of a playing company called the Lord Chamberlain's Men, later known as the King's Men. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613, at age 49, where he died three years later. Few records of his private life survive, which has stimulated considerable speculation about such matters as his physical appearance, sexuality, and religious beliefs, and whether the works attributed to him were written by others. He produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613. His early plays were primarily comedies and histories, and these are regarded as some of the best work ever produced in these genres. He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth, considered some of the finest works in the English language. In his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies, also known as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights.

26. The Shakespeare authorship question

The argument that someone other than William Shakespeare of Stratford-on-Avon wrote the works attributed to him. Anti-Stratfordians—a collective term for adherents of the various alternative-authorship theories—believe that Shakespeare of Stratford was a front to shield the identity of the real author or authors, who for some reason did not want or could not accept public credit. Although the idea has attracted much public interest, all but a few Shakespeare scholars and literary historians consider it a fringe belief and for the most part acknowledge it only to rebut or disparage the claims. Shakespeare's authorship was first questioned in the middle of the 19th century, when adulation of Shakespeare as the greatest writer of all time had become widespread. Shakespeare's biography, particularly his humble origins and obscure life, seemed incompatible with his poetic eminence and his reputation for genius, arousing suspicion that Shakespeare might not have written the works attributed to him. The controversy has since spawned a vast body of literature, and more than 80 authorship candidates have been proposed, the most popular being Sir Francis Bacon; Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford; Christopher Marlowe; and William Stanley, 6th Earl of Derby.

27. Edward de Vere

An English peer and courtier of the Elizabethan era, who lived from 1550-1604. He was heir to the second oldest earldom in the kingdom, a court favorite for a time, a sought-after patron of the arts, and noted by his contemporaries as a lyric poet and court playwright, but his reckless and volatile temperament precluded him from attaining any courtly or governmental responsibility and contributed to the dissipation of his estate. Since the 1920s he has been the most popular alternative candidate proposed for the authorship of Shakespeare's works.

28. Christopher Marlowe

an English playwright, poet and translator of the Elizabethan era, who lived from 1564-1593. He was the foremost Elizabethan tragedian of his day. He greatly influenced William Shakespeare, who was born in the same year as him and who rose to become the pre-eminent Elizabethan playwright after his mysterious early death. His plays are known for the use of blank verse and their overreaching protagonists. His most famous works include Doctor Faustus, The Jew of Malta, Tamburlaine, Edward the Second and The Massacre at Paris.

29. Dr. Faustus

A play by Christopher Marlowe based on the German Faustbuch, was the first dramatized version of the Faust legend of a scholar's dealing with the devil. While versions of "The Devil's Pact" can be traced back to the 4th century, Marlowe deviates significantly by having his hero unable to "burn his books" or repent to a merciful God in order to have his contract annulled at the end of the play. Marlowe's protagonist is instead carried off by demons, and in the 1616 quarto his mangled corpse is found by several scholars.

30. Hamlet

A tragedy written by William Shakespeare at an uncertain date between 1599 and 1602. Set in the Kingdom of Denmark, the play dramatizes the revenge Prince Hamlet is called to wreak upon his uncle, Claudius, by the ghost of Hamlet's father, King Hamlet. Claudius had murdered his own brother and seized the throne, also marrying his deceased brother's widow, Gertrude. Hamlet is Shakespeare's longest play, and is ranked among the most powerful and influential tragedies in English literature, with a story capable of "seemingly endless retelling and adaptation by others". He almost certainly wrote his version of the title role for his fellow actor, Richard Burbage, the leading tragedian of Shakespeare's time. Though Disney claims it to be an original work, it’s The Lion King, clearly shows a heavy influence from Hamlet, proving the story’s staying power once again. This is Shakespeare’s longest play and the title character has the most lines of any character in any play.

Characters you must know from Hamlet: Prince Hamlet, Claudius, Polonius, Horatio, Gertrude, Ophelia, Laertes, Yorick, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern.

31. Horatio

A character in William Shakespeare's tragedy Hamlet. His origins are unknown, although he was present on the battlefield when Hamlet's father defeated 'the ambitious Norway', Fortinbras (the king), and attended Wittenberg university with prince Hamlet. He is evidently not directly involved in the intrigue at the Danish court; thus, he makes a good foil or sounding board for Prince Hamlet. He is often not identified as any specific court position, but simply as "friend to Hamlet." He is the one that first brings Hamlet’s attention to his father’s ghost. He also offers to kill himself at the end of the play but is specifically told not to by Hamlet so that he can tell the story.

32. Ophelia

A character in William Shakespeare's play Hamlet. She is a young noblewoman of Denmark, the daughter of Polonius, sister of Laertes, and potential wife of Prince Hamlet. She is one of only two female characters in the play, along with Hamlet’s mother Gertrude. When Hamlet spurns her amidst his act of madness, she commits suicide, drowning herself.

33. Rosencranz and Guildenstern

Characters in William Shakespeare's tragedy Hamlet. They are childhood friends of Hamlet, summoned by King Claudius to distract the prince from his apparent madness and if possible to ascertain the cause of it. Claudius sends them to England with Hamlet, expecting to have them treated like royalty and Hamlet executed. Instead, Hamlet switches the letters and they are executed in England. The characters were revived in a satire by W. S. Gilbert's satire and as the alienated heroes of a Tom Stoppard absurdist play.

34. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead

An absurdist, existentialist tragicomedy by Tom Stoppard, first staged at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe in 1966. The play expands upon the exploits of two minor characters from Shakespeare's Hamlet. The action of Stoppard's play takes place mainly "in the wings" of Shakespeare's, with brief appearances of major characters from Hamlet who enact fragments of the original's scenes. Between these episodes the two protagonists voice their confusion at the progress of events occurring onstage without them in Hamlet, of which they have no direct knowledge.

35. Macbeth

A tragedy by William Shakespeare, thought to have been first performed in 1606. It dramatizes the damaging physical and psychological effects of political ambition on those who seek power for its own sake. It is his shortest tragedy. A brave Scottish general, who is the title character,  receives a prophecy from a trio of witches that one day he will become King of Scotland. Consumed by ambition and spurred to action by his wife, he murders King Duncan and takes the Scottish throne for himself. He is then wracked with guilt and paranoia. Forced to commit more and more murders to protect himself from enmity and suspicion, he soon becomes a tyrannical ruler. The bloodbath and consequent civil war swiftly take he and his wife into the realms of madness and death.

Characters you must know from Macbeth: Macbeth, Lady Macbeth, Duncan, Banquo, MacDuff, Malcolm

36. “Out, out damned spot”

A sentence from the play Macbeth by William Shakespeare, spoken by Lady Macbeth, the wife of the title character. Her husband has killed the king of Scotland at her urging, but her guilt over the murder gradually drives her insane. When she speaks this line she is sleepwalking, and she imagines that a spot of the king's blood stains her hand. Metaphorically, the act of encouraging her husband to murder has stained her soul.

37. Othello

A tragedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written in 1603. It is based on the story Un Capitano Moro ("A Moorish Captain") by Cinthio, a disciple of Boccaccio, first published in 1604. The story revolves around four central characters: The title character, a Moorish general in the Venetian army; his beloved wife, Desdemona; his loyal lieutenant, Cassio; and his trusted but ultimately unfaithful ensign, Iago. In the plot, Iago, ultimately jealous that the black title character was given command over him, ingratiates himself to the title character to gain his trust. He then tricks the title character into believing that Desdemona is having an affair with Cassio, which ultimately leads to the title character killing his wife, though the plot is uncovered and Iago is arrested. Given its varied and enduring themes of racism, love, jealousy, betrayal, revenge and repentance, it is still often performed in professional and community theater alike, and has been the source for numerous operatic, film, and literary adaptations.

Characters you must know from Othello: Iago, Othello, Desdemona, Cassio, Emilia, Roderigo, Bianca

38. Iago
        
A fictional character in Shakespeare's Othello. He is the play's main antagonist, and Othello's standard bearer. He is Emilia's husband, who is in turn the attendant of Othello's wife Desdemona. He hates Othello and devises a plan to destroy him by making him believe that his wife is having an affair with his lieutenant, Michael Cassio. He is the most cunning villain in all of Shakespeare, and has the most lines in the play. A talking parrot sidekick to the villain Jafar in the movie Aladdin was named after him and voiced by Gilbert Gottfried.

39. Richard Burbage

Considered the first great actor of English theater, he lived from 1567-1619. He is one of the most famous actors of the Globe Theatre of his time. In addition to being a stage actor he was also a theatre owner, entrepreneur and painter. His older brother Cuthbert was also an actor. He was a business associate and friend to the playwright, William Shakespeare, and is most known for be the star of Shakespeare’s theater company and originating the roles of Hamlet, Othello, Richard III and King Lear.

40. King Lear

A tragedy written by William Shakespeare around 1605 or 1606. It depicts the gradual descent into madness of the title character, after he disposes of his kingdom giving bequests to two of his three daughters based on their flattery of him, bringing tragic consequences for all. Derived from the legend of Leir of Britain, a mythological pre-Roman Celtic king, the play has been widely adapted for the stage and motion pictures, with the title role coveted by many of the world's most accomplished actors.
After the English Restoration, the play was often revised with a happy, non-tragic ending for audiences who disliked its dark and depressing tone, but since the 19th century Shakespeare's original version has been regarded as one of his supreme achievements. The tragedy is particularly noted for its probing observations on the nature of human suffering and kinship.

Characters you must know from King Lear: King Lear, Cordelia, Regan, Gonereil, Earl of Kent, Earl of Gloucester, Edmund, Edgar

41. Cordelia

A fictional character in William Shakespeare’s tragic play, King Lear. She is the youngest of King Lear’s three daughters, and his favorite. After her elderly father offers her the opportunity to profess her love to him in return for one third of the land in his kingdom, she refuses and is banished for the majority of the play. Ironically, she is the only of his three daughters that truly loves him.

42. Romeo and Juliet

A tragedy written by William Shakespeare early in his career about two young star-crossed lovers whose deaths ultimately reconcile their feuding families. It was among Shakespeare's most popular plays during his lifetime and, along with Hamlet, is one of his most frequently performed plays. Today, the title characters are regarded as archetypal young lovers.

Characters you must know from Romeo and Juliet: Juliet Capulet, Romeo Montague, Lord Capulet, Lady Capulet, Tybalt, The Prince, Mercutio, Paris, The Nurse, Friar Lawrence, Benvolio

43. “A plague on both your houses”

A line spoken by the character Mercutio upon his death in the William Shakespeare play Romeo and Juliet. Mercutio is a member of neither the Capulet or Montague family, but his loyalty to Romeo gets him killed in a duel with the villain Tybalt, largely because Romeo interferes trying to stop the fight. Mercutio also utters the line, “Ask for me tomorrow, and you shall find me a grave man,” when he first realizes he is dying.

44. Julius Caesar

A tragedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written in 1599. It is one of several plays written by Shakespeare based on true events from Roman history, which also include Coriolanus and Antony and Cleopatra. The title character  is not the most visible character in its action, appearing alive in only three scenes. Marcus Brutus speaks more than four times as many lines, and the central psychological drama of the play focuses on Brutus' struggle between the conflicting demands of honor, patriotism and friendship.

Characters you must know from Julius Caesar: Brutus, Cassius, Julius Caesar, Marc Antony

45. Titus Andronicus

A tragedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written between 1588 and 1593, probably in collaboration with George Peele. It is thought to be Shakespeare's first tragedy, and is often seen as his attempt to emulate the violent and bloody revenge plays of his contemporaries, which were extremely popular with audiences throughout the 16th century. The play is set during the latter days of the Roman Empire and tells the fictional story of Titus, a general in the Roman army, who is engaged in a cycle of revenge with Tamora, Queen of the Goths. It is Shakespeare's bloodiest and most violent work, and traditionally was one of his least respected plays; although it was extremely popular in its day, by the later 17th century it had fallen out of favor. In the Victorian era, it was disapproved of primarily because of what was considered to be a distasteful use of graphic violence, but from around the middle of the 20th century its reputation began to improve.

Characters you must know from Titus Andronicus: Titus, Livinia, Tamora, Aaron, Lucius. Saturnius, Demetrius and Chiron

46. Henry V

A history play by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written around 1599. It tells the story of title king of England, focusing on events immediately before and after the Battle of Agincourt (1415) during the Hundred Years' War. It is most famous for its St. Crispin’s Day speech as he fires up his men for battle. The play is the final part of a tetralogy, preceded by Richard II, Henry IV, Part 1, and Henry IV, Part 2. The original audiences would thus have already been familiar with the title character, who was depicted in the Henry IV plays as a wild, undisciplined lad known as "Prince Harry" and by Falstaff as "Hal". In Henry V, the young prince has become a mature man and embarks on a successful conquest of France.

47. Sir John Falstaff

A fictional character who appears in three plays by William Shakespeare. In the plays Henry IV, Part 1 and Part 2, he is a companion to Prince Hal, the future King Henry V. In The Merry Wives of Windsor, he is the buffoonish suitor of two married women. Though primarily a comic figure, he still embodies a kind of depth common to Shakespeare's major characters. A fat, vain, boastful, and cowardly knight, he spends most of his time drinking at the Boar's Head Inn with petty criminals, living on stolen or borrowed money. He leads the apparently wayward Prince Hal into trouble, and is ultimately repudiated after Hal becomes king. In Act II, Scene III of Henry V, his death is described by Mistress Quickly in terms that reference Plato's description of the death of Socrates.

48. Richard III

A historical play by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written in approximately 1592. It depicts the Machiavellian rise to power and subsequent short reign of the title English king. It is the second longest play by Shakespeeare after Hamlet. It contains the line, “A horse, a horse, my kingdom for a horse,” and, “Now is the winter of our discontent.” 49. The Taming of The Shrew

A comedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written between 1590 and 1592. The play begins with a framing device, often referred to as the induction, in which a mischievous nobleman tricks a drunken tinker named Christopher Sly into believing he is actually a nobleman himself. The nobleman then has the play performed for Sly's diversion. The main plot depicts the courtship of Petruchio and Katherina, the headstrong title character. Initially, Katherina is an unwilling participant in the relationship, but Petruchio tempers her with various psychological torments until she becomes a compliant and obedient bride. The subplot features a competition between the suitors of Katherina's more desirable sister, Bianca. The play's allegedly misogynistic elements have become the subject of considerable controversy, particularly among modern scholars, audiences and readers. It has been adapted numerous times for stage, screen, opera, ballet, and musical theater; perhaps the most famous adaptations being Cole Porter's musical Kiss Me, Kate and the 1967 film of the play, starring Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton. The 1999 high school comedy film 10 Things I Hate About You is modern adaptation of the play.

Characters you should know from The Taming of the Shrew: Petruchio, Katherina, Bianca, Lucentio, Tranio, Christopher Sly, Minola

50. 10 Things I Hate About You

A 1999 American romantic comedy film directed by Gil Junger and starring Julia Stiles, Heath Ledger, Joseph Gordon-Levitt, and Larisa Oleynik. The screenplay, written by Karen McCullah Lutz and Kirsten Smith, is a modernization of William Shakespeare's late-16th century comedy The Taming of the Shrew, retold in a late-1990s American high school setting. In the story, new student Cameron (Gordon-Levitt) is smitten with Bianca (Oleynik) and, in order to get around her father's strict rules on dating, attempts to get "bad boy" Patrick (Ledger) to date Bianca's ill-tempered sister, Kat (Stiles). The film is titled after a poem written by Kat about her bittersweet romance with Patrick.

51. Much Ado About Nothing

A comedic play by William Shakespeare thought to have been written in 1598 and 1599, as Shakespeare was approaching the middle of his career. The play is centered around two couples, 1) Beatrice and Benedick, who verbally spar with each other and vow to never marry and 2) Claudio and Hero, who fall instantly in love. The crux of the plot sees the good prince Don Pedro trying to get the first couple together, while his evil brother Don John tries to split the second couple up. By means of "noting" (which, in Shakespeare's day, sounded the same as "nothing" as in the play's title, and which means gossip, rumor, and overhearing), Benedick and Beatrice are tricked into confessing their love for each other, and Claudio is tricked into rejecting Hero at the altar on the erroneous belief that she has been unfaithful. At the end, Benedick and Beatrice join forces to set things right, and the others join in a dance celebrating the marriages of the two couples.

Characters you should know from Much Ado About Nothing: Benedick, Beatrice, Dogberry, Don Pedro, Hero, Claudio, Don John

52. Beatrice and Benedick
        
The central characters in Shakespeare’s comedy masterpiece Much Ado About Nothing. The verbal sparring between the two has attracted many great actors and actresses to the roles. It is almost a reprisal of the type of relationship seen with Petruchio and Katherina in The Taming of the Shrew, except the two adversaries in Much Ado About Nothing are on far more equal footing.

53. Dogberry

A character created by William Shakespeare for his play, Much Ado About Nothing. He is a self-satisfied night constable, with an inflated view of his own importance as the leader of a group of comically bumbling police watchmen. He is notable for his numerous malapropisms. The character was created for William Kempe, who played comic roles in Shakespeare's theatre company the Lord Chamberlain's Men. He is a figure of comic incompetence. The humor of his character is his frequent use of malapropism, a product of his pretentiousness, as he attempts to use sophisticated terminology with disastrous results. Shakespeare appears to be poking mild fun at the amateur police forces of his day, in which respectable citizens spent a fixed number of nights per year fulfilling an obligation to protect the public peace, a job for which they were, by and large, unqualified. He and his crew, however, are also given a thematic function, for it is they who (accidentally) uncover the plot of Don John and begin the process of restoration that leads to the play's happy conclusion.

54. Twelfth Night, or What You Will

A comedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written around 1601–02 as entertainment for the close of the Christmas season. The play centers on the twins Viola and Sebastian, who are separated in a shipwreck. Viola (who is disguised as a boy named Cesario) falls in love with Duke Orsino, who in turn is in love with the Countess Olivia. Upon meeting Viola, Countess Olivia falls in love with her thinking she is a man. The play expanded on the musical interludes and riotous disorder expected of the occasion, with plot elements drawn from the short story "Of Apollonius and Silla" by Barnabe Rich, based on a story by Matteo Bandello.

Characters you must know from Twelfth Night: Viola, Orsino, Olivia, Sebastian, Sir Toby Belch, Malvolio

55. “If music be the food of love, play on”

The first line of Twelfth Night by William Shakespeare, spoken by Duke Orsino, one of the most famous first lines of any of his plays, along with Richard III’s “Now is the winter of our discontent”, Romeo and Juliet’s “Two households, both alike in dignity, In fair Verona, where we lay our scene” and Macbeth’s “When shall we three meet again, In thunder, lightning, or in rain?” Orsino is asking for more music because he is frustrated in his courtship of Countess Olivia. He muses that an excess of music might cure his obsession with love, in the way that eating too much removes one's appetite for food.

56. The Merchant of Venice

A play by William Shakespeare in which a merchant in 16th-century Venice must default on a large loan provided by an abused Jewish moneylender. It is believed to have been written between 1596 and 1599. The play is perhaps most remembered for its dramatic scenes, and is best known for Shylock and the famous "Hath not a Jew eyes?" speech. Also notable is Portia's speech about "the quality of mercy". The play is frequently staged today, but is potentially troubling to modern audiences due to its central themes, which can easily appear antisemitic. Critics today still continue to argue over the play's stance on the Jews and Judaism.

Characters you must know from The Merchant of Venice: Shylock, Portia, Antonio (The Merchant), Jessica

    57. Shylock

A character in William Shakespeare's play, The Merchant of Venice. A Venetian Jewish moneylender, He  is the play's principal antagonist. His defeat and conversion to Christianity forms the climax of the story. The name has become synonymous with people loan sharks and people who lend money at exorbitant interest rates.

58. “A pound of flesh”

Something which is owed that is ruthlessly required to be paid back. This derives from William’s Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice, 1596. The insistence by Shylock of the payment of Antonio's flesh is the central plot device of the play:

    The pound of flesh which I demand of him Is deerely bought, 'tis mine, and I will have it.

The figurative use of the phrase to refer to any lawful but nevertheless unreasonable recompense dates to the late 18th century.

59. The Tempest

A play by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written in 1610–11, and thought by many critics to be the last play that Shakespeare wrote alone. It is set on a remote island, where the sorcerer Prospero, rightful Duke of Milan, plots to restore his daughter Miranda to her rightful place using illusion and skillful manipulation. He conjures up a storm to lure his usurping brother Antonio and the complicit King Alonso of Naples to the island. There, his machinations bring about the revelation of Antonio's lowly nature, the redemption of the King, and the marriage of Miranda to Alonso's son, Ferdinand. When Prospero gives up his magic at the end of the play, it is seen as symbolic of Shakespeare giving up being a playwright.

Characters you must know from The Tempest: Prospero, Miranda, Caliban, Ariel, Ferdinand.

60. A Midsummer Night’s Dream

A comedy written by William Shakespeare between 1590 and 1597. It portrays the events surrounding the marriage of Theseus, the Duke of Athens, to Hippolyta. These include the adventures of four young Athenian lovers (Hermia, Helena, Lysander and Demetrius) and a group of six amateur actors (including Bottom whose head is turned into that of a donkey over the course of a play) who are controlled and manipulated by the fairies (mostly Puck, but also Oberon and Titania) who inhabit the forest in which most of the play is set. The play is one of Shakespeare's most popular works for the stage and is widely performed across the world.

Characters you must know from A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Puck, Oberon, Titania, Bottom, Hermia, Helena, Lysander, Demetrius, Theseus, Hippolyta

61. Puck

Also known as Robin Goodfellow, he is a character in William Shakespeare's play A Midsummer Night's Dream, based on the ancient figure found in English mythology. He is a clever, mischievous elf, sprite or jester that personifies the wise knave. In the play, Shakespeare introduces him as the "shrewd and knavish sprite" and "that merry wanderer of the night"; he is a jester to Oberon, the fairy king. He and Bottom are the only two characters who interact and progress the three central stories in the whole play; he is the one who is first introduced in the fairies' story and creates the drama of the lovers' story by breaking up a young couple lost in an enchanted forest, as well as by placing the ass on Bottom's head. Similarly, Bottom is performing in a play intending it to be presented in the lovers' story, as well as interacting with Titania in the fairies' story.

62. “Lord, what fools these mortals be”

A line from the play A Midsummer Night's Dream, by William Shakespeare. A mischievous fairy, Puck, addressing his king, is commenting on the folly of the human beings who have come into his forest. It largely sums up the action of the play, in that the fairies are smarter than the mortals, especially Puck. It is one of the most famous and most oft quoted lines in all of Shakespeare.

63. As You Like It

A pastoral comedy by William Shakespeare believed to have been written in 1599. It follows its heroine Rosalind as she flees persecution in her uncle's court, accompanied by her cousin Celia to find safety and, eventually, love, in the Forest of Arden. Rosalind spends much of the play disguised as a man named Ganymede, and at one point pretends to be herself while posing as Ganymede in a scene with Orlando. In the forest, they encounter a variety of memorable characters, notably the melancholy traveler Jaques who speaks many of Shakespeare's most famous speeches (such as "All the world's a stage" and "A fool! A fool! I met a fool in the forest"). Jaques provides a sharp contrast to the other characters in the play, always observing and disputing the hardships of life in the country. In addition, Rosalind’s father, the rightful king, is also hiding out in the forest.

64. The Seven Ages of Man

A speech by Jacques in As You Like It which begins with the lines:

All the world's a stage,
And all the men and women merely players;
They have their exits and their entrances,
And one man in his time plays many parts


He lists these seven stages as:

1) infant
2) whining school boy
3) lover
4) soldier
5) the justice
6) lean and slippered pantaloon
7) second childishness

Robert Smirke also painted a series of paintings representing the seven between 1798 and 1801.

65. Touchstone

A fictional character in Shakespeare's play As You Like It. He is the court jester of Duke Frederick, the usurper's court. Throughout the play he comments on the other characters and thus contributes to a better understanding of the play. He falls in love with a dull-witted goat girl named Audrey. William, an oafish country boy, makes clumsy attempts to woo her as well, but is driven off by the fool, who threatens to kill him "a hundred and fifty ways." Eventually the fool marries Audrey, but a prediction is made that the relationship will not last. He is not a self-centered and selfish man, as is shown when he is willing to follow Celia into the forest of Arden for the simple reason as to be a comfort on the journey and as a security too. He is thought to be a witty or clever fool. Often he tries to show off his wit and intelligence by making some wise comments and references.

     66. The Merry Wives of Windsor

A comedy by William Shakespeare, first published in 1602, though believed to have been written prior to 1597. The Windsor of the play's title is a reference to Windsor Castle in Berkshire, England, and though nominally set in the reign of Henry IV, the play makes no pretense to exist outside contemporary Elizabethan era English middle class life. It features the character Sir John Falstaff, the fat knight who had previously been featured in Henry IV Parts 1 and 2. It has been adapted for the opera on several occasions. Unlike his previous appearances, Shakespeare, who was forced by Queen Elizabeth to write another play with Falstaff, makes him such a jerk that know one would ask for him again. His presence, however, is enough to garner attention for this play.

Characters you must know from The Merry Wives of Windsor: Sir John Falstaff

67. The Comedy of Errors

One of William Shakespeare's early plays. It is his shortest and one of his most farcical comedies, with a major part of the humor coming from slapstick and mistaken identity, in addition to puns and word play. It tells the story of two sets of identical twins that were accidentally separated at birth. Antipholus of Syracuse and his servant, Dromio of Syracuse, arrive in Ephesus, which turns out to be the home of their twin brothers, Antipholus of Ephesus and his servant, Dromio of Ephesus. When the Syracusans encounter the friends and families of their twins, a series of wild mishaps based on mistaken identities lead to wrongful beatings, a near-seduction, the arrest of Antipholus of Ephesus, and false accusations of infidelity, theft, madness, and demonic possession. The play is often performed with extreme amounts of juggling written into the plot.

Characters you must know from The Comedy of Errors: Antipholus (of Syracuse and Ephesus), Dromio (also of Syracuse and Ephesus)

68. Love’s Labour Lost

One of William Shakespeare's early comedies, believed to have been written in the mid-1590s for a performance at the Inns of Court before Queen Elizabeth I. It follows the King of Navarre and his three companions as they attempt to forswear the company of women for three years of study and fasting, and their subsequent infatuation with the Princess of Aquitaine and her ladies. In an untraditional ending for a comedy, the play closes with the death of the Princess's father, and all weddings are delayed for a year. Ironically, the play is most talked about today because many early references to Shakespeare’s play contain a listing for Love’s Labour’s Won as well. Whether that is a lost sequel to this play or a preliminary name for one of Shakespeare’s other plays has never been determined.

69. Kenneth Branagh

A Northern Irish actor, director, producer, and screenwriter. One of the preeminent Shakespearean actors in the world, he trained at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art in London. He has directed or starred in several film adaptations of William Shakespeare's plays, including Henry V (1989) (for which he was nominated for Academy Awards for Best Actor and Best Director), Much Ado About Nothing (1993), Othello (1995), Hamlet (1996) (for which he was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay), Love's Labour's Lost (2000), and As You Like It (2006). He also has starred in many none Shakespearean roles, and like most famous actors from the Britain and Ireland, he showed up in the Harry Potter series of films, playing Gilderoy Lockhart in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, the second film in the series.

70. The Complete Works of William Shakespeare (abridged)

A play written by Adam Long, Daniel Singer, and Jess Winfield that parodies the plays of William Shakespeare with all of them being performed (in comically shortened or merged form) by only three actors. Typically, the actors use their real names and play themselves rather than specific characters. The fourth wall is nonexistent in the performance with the actors speaking directly to the audience during much of the play, and some scenes involve audience participation. The director and stage crew may also be directly involved in the performance and become characters themselves. The script contains many humorous footnotes on the text that are often not included in the performance. However, improvisation plays an important role and it is normal for the actors to deviate from the script and have spontaneous conversations about the material with each other or the audience. It is also common for them to make references to pop culture or to talk about local people and places in the area where the play is being performed. As a result, performances differ, even with the same cast. The writers, Long, Singer, and Winfield – former founding members of the Reduced Shakespeare Company – first performed at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe in 1987 and later played at the Criterion Theatre in London, where it ran for nine years. It has become one of the world's most popular shows, playing frequently in a variety of languages. It is notable for holding the world record for the shortest-ever performance of Hamlet, clocking in at 43 seconds, as well as the fastest performance of Hamlet backwards, at 42 seconds.

71. Shakespearean Sonnet

Poems of 14 lines of which Shakespeare wrote 154. His style of these poems consisted of three quatrains and an ending couplet with the rhyme pattern abab cdcd efef gg.

72. Petrarch

An Italian scholar and poet in Renaissance Italy, who lived from 1304-1374, and one of the earliest humanists. His rediscovery of Cicero's letters is often credited for initiating the 14th-century Renaissance. He is often considered the founder of Humanism. His sonnets were admired and imitated throughout Europe during the Renaissance and became a model for lyrical poetry.  His style of sonnets differed from Shakespeare, with an octave and a sestet. His typical rhyme pattern was abbaabba cdecde, though he sometimes used cdcdce for the sestet. He is also known for being the first to develop the concept of the "Dark Ages."