Things to learn about early ethnic belief systems (Packet 6 of 12)

1. Epic of Gilgamesh

Dating from around 2100 BCE in Ur, it is often considered the first great work of literature and the first epic poem. The first half of the story discusses the title king of Uruk, who is two-thirds god and one-third man, and Enkidu, a wild man created by the gods to stop him from oppressing the people of Uruk. After an initial fight, the two become close friends. Together, they journey to the Cedar Mountain and defeat Humbaba, its monstrous guardian. Later they kill the Bull of Heaven, which the goddess Ishtar sends to punish the king for spurning her advances. As a punishment for these actions, the gods sentence Enkidu to death. In the second half of the epic, distress about Enkidu's death causes the king to undertake a long and perilous journey to discover the secret of eternal life. While he doesn’t find eternal life he is remembered as a brave warrior, fair judge, and ambitious builder, having surrounded the city of Uruk with magnificent walls and erected its glorious ziggurats.

2. Enkidu

Companion and friend of Gilgamesh. Hairy-bodied and brawny, he was raised by animals. Even after he joins the civilized world, he retains many of his undomesticated characteristics. He looks much like Gilgamesh and is almost his physical equal. He aspires to be Gilgamesh’s rival but instead becomes his soul mate. The gods punish the two by giving him a slow, painful, inglorious death for killing the demon Humbaba and the Bull of Heaven. He is a foil to Gilgamesh throughout the story, whereas Gilgamesh is the rich, entitled, though virtuous king, he represents the purity and good of the natural world.

3. Mahabharata

Composed between 300 BCE and 300 CE, it has the honor of being the longest epic in world literature, 100,000 2-line stanzas, making it eight times as long as Homer's Iliad and Odyssey together, and over three times as long as the Bible. Only about 4000 lines relate to the main story; the rest contain additional myths and teachings. It resembles a long journey with many side roads and detours. It is said that “Whatever is here is found elsewhere. But whatever is not here is nowhere else.” The name means “great story of the Bharatas.” Bharata was an early ancestor of both the Pandavas and Kauravas who fight each other in a great war, but the word is also used generically for the Indian race, so it sometimes is referred to as “the great story of India.” The work is divided into 18 books (concerning an 18-day war among 18 armies). The main narrative concerning the war is contained in the first ten books.

4. Hinduism

The largest ethnic religion in the world with over 900 million practitioners. It is the religion of the majority of people in India and Nepal, and in many ways is the oldest living religion in the world. Unlike most other religions, it has no single founder, no single scripture, and no commonly agreed set of teachings. Throughout its extensive history, there have been many key figures teaching different philosophies and writing numerous holy books. For these reasons, writers often refer to it as 'a way of life' or 'a family of religions' rather than a single religion. Most practitioners revere a group of sacred texts known as the Veda. The religion is associated with a belief in reincarnation, the caste system, the concept of karma and a group of philosophies that reflect understanding of the Vedic texts called the upanishads.

5. Vishnu

One of the Trimurti (the holy trinity of Hindu gods), he is the Preserver, protecting the world. When needed, he descends to Earth as an avatar, or incarnation. Nine have appeared so far: Matsya, Kurma (tortoise), Varah (boar), Narasimha (man-lion), Vamana (dwarf), Parashurama, Rama, Krishna, and Buddha. A tenth, Kalki, will appear with a flaming sword to save humans from the darkness. Some cult followers worship him as Narayana, the primal being. He has dark blue skin, rides with the eagle Garuna, and sits on the snake Shesha. His symbols are the conch, disc, club, and lotus; his chief wives are Lakshmi and Bhu (the Earth). Kama, the god of love, may be his son.

6. Shiva

Also known as Lord Mahesh, he is the Destroyer in the Trimurti. Developed from Rudra, the Vedic god of death, he is often shown sitting on a tiger skin and riding the bull Nandi. He is also associated with a lingam (phallus). He has three eyes, of which the third (in the middle of his head) is all-knowing; when it opens, the world is destroyed and regenerated. Lord of all underworld beings, he wears a necklace of skulls and another made of a snake. He carries a trident as a weapon and has a blue throat, the result of drinking poison while the ocean churns. Parvati, one of his several consorts, bears him two sons: Kartikeya (the god of war) and Ganesha.

7. Brahma

The third of the Trimurti, he is the Creator. By dropping an egg into the cosmic waters, he hatches a younger form of him that creates other beings. Also the chief priest, he has four heads that each point in a cardinal direction, representing the Four Vedas. He has a fifth head until Shiva plucked it off; as punishment for that act, Shiva is forced to wander as a beggar and carry his severed skull as a bowl. His wife is Savitri, who curses him after he lets a cow-maiden stand in for her at a ritual. Few people worship him, either because of the curse or because he lost a power struggle to Vishnu.

8. Krishna

This eighth avatar of Vishnu is born when Vishnu plucks two of his own hairs - one light, one dark - and used the dark hair to impregnate Devaki. Her husband Vasudeva saves him from evil King Kansa by carrying him across the river Yamuna to safety in Gokula. He can be depicted as a child, adolescent, or adult. As an infant, he plays pranks such as stealing butter. As a youthful lover, he plays the flute and dances with the gopis (cow-maidens) in the Vrindavana forest. As an adult, he is a dark-skinned warrior with a light, angelic face, charioteer to Arjuna (in the Mahabharata). In the Bhagavad-Gita it is he who reveals the importance of dharma and bhakti. His consort is the cowherd girl Radha.

9. Ganesha

This elephant-headed god of wisdom and learning is often shown riding a rat. Parvati "gives birth" to him by creating him from the saffron paste she scrubbed off of herself after bathing. When Parvati instructs him not to let anyone in as she took another bath, he prevents Shiva from entering, prompting Shiva to cut off his head. To calm Parvati, Shiva tells servants to take the head of the first baby found whose mother had her back turned; the servants bring back the head of a baby elephant. He has two wives (Riddhi and Siddhi), two sons, and a daughter. People pray to this remover of obstacles and bringer of good fortune before they commence business.

10. Rama

The seventh avatar of Vishnu is hero of the Ramayana. Born as a prince to King Dasharatha and Queen Kaushalya, he wins the hand of his wife Sita in a competition held by Sita's father, King Janaka; only he can string Shiva's bow. When his aunt Kaikeyi schemes to deprive him of Dasharatha's throne by putting her son Bharata there, he and Sita are banished to a forest for 14 years. During that time, the ten-headed demon Ravana kidnaps Sita but he rescues her and kills Ravana. Bharata abdicates; he makes Sita walk through fire to prove that Ravana had not corrupted her.

11. Indra

The god of rain, thunder, and war, he wields the thunderbolt (vajra) and rides Airavat, the four-tusked white elephant. In early Vedic times he was king of the gods who ruled swarga; many Rig Veda hymns are devoted to him. With the aid of both the Marut storm gods and his favorite drink, soma, he leads the Aryan conquest of India. He also defeats the dragon Vritra, who had stolen the world's water.

12. Lakshimi (Sri)

The last and greatest treasure born from the "churning of the ocean," she is the goddess of prosperity and patron to moneylenders. The epitome of feminine beauty, she sits or stands on a lotus flower and appears in her own avatars alongside Vishnu: Sita to his Rama; Padma the lotus to Vamana the dwarf; Radha (or Rukmini) to Krishna. A form of the mother goddess (Shakti, or Devi), she also represents virtue and honesty.


13. “Shiva’s consort”

Several incarnations of the "mother goddess" take this moniker. Parvati, the most benevolent form, is the reincarnation of Sati, who threw herself into the fire. Durga is a demon-slayer who rides a lion into battle and carries a weapon in each of her many arms. Kali is a black-skinned goddess of destruction, who defeats the demon leader Raktavija by drinking all of his blood. Although Kali's dance can destroy the world, Shiva throws himself at her feet to calm her, turning her into Parvati.

14. Arjuna

The chief hero of the Mahabharata, he is the son of Indra and one of five Pandava brothers, who fight a bitter war against their one hundred cousins, Kauravas, culminating at the battle on "Kuru's Field." Before the battle, he asks his charioteer (Krishman) why he must fight. Krishna responds that he must follow a devotion to god (bhakti) and that even as he slays his brethren, it is for a just cause. Along with the rest of the Pandavas, he is married to Draupadi.

15. Hanuman

Son of the wind god Vaayu and Queen Anjana, he has a human body with a monkey's head. As a boy he swallows the sun (mistaking it for a piece of fruit); the angry Indra whips him with a thunderbolt. In response the wind god Vaayu refuses to breathe air into the world, prompting Indra to apologize and the other gods to bestow immortality and shapeshifting ability on Hanuman. He figures prominently in the Ramayana, where he flies to Lanka to tell Sita that Rama will rescue her from Ravana.

16. Agni
Part of a trinity with Surya (the sun) and Vaayu (the wind), he can be brought to life by rubbing two sticks together. Since he is responsible for sacrificial fires, he is the patron of priests. He has a red body, two heads, three legs, four arms, and seven tongues; he often carries a flaming javelin. In the Mahabharata, his grandfather is one of seven great sages; with the help of Krishna, he devours the Khandav forest.

17. Ramayana

A Sanskrit epic poem ascribed to the Hindu sage and Sanskrit poet Valmiki. It is regarded as one of the two great works of Indian literature, along with the Mahabharata. It also plays an important role in Hindu literature. It depicts the duties of relationships, portraying ideal characters like the ideal father, the ideal servant, the ideal brother, the ideal wife and the ideal king. The name literally translates to "Rama's Journey". It consists of 24,000 verses in seven books and 500 cantos  and tells the story of  the seventh avatar of the Hindu supreme-god Vishnu, whose wife Sita is abducted by Ravana, the king of Lanka (current day Sri Lanka). Thematically, it explores human values and the concept of dharma.

18. caste system
A system in India that determines a persons social status by birth – with Brahmins (priests) at the top, followed by Kshatriya (warriors), Vaishyas (famers and merchants) and Sudras (unskilled workers). Another group, called untouchables, were completely below the structure.  Caste members lived, ate, married, and worked with their own group. A person born into one caste rarely changed castes or mixed with members of other castes. Social rules defined how to behave within a caste and when in the presence people from other castes. It precedes written history, but it seems to have developed slowly over time based on the traditional beliefs of the Aryan nomads who began moving onto the subcontinent about 1000BCE. Each caste had a clearly defined role. Members of each caste were obligated to look after one another, so each caste had its own support system. These traditions were later incorporated into the Hindu religion. At the top of the caste system were the Brahmin and the Kshatriya.

A) The Brahmin were the priests, teachers, and judges who understood dharma. Dharma are the spiritual laws that govern the universe. The Brahmin often lived apart from the rest of society in temples.

B) The Kshatriya were the warrior caste who made everyday decisions and ran the government. The Kshatriya had most of the power in everyday life, but their decisions could be overruled by the Brahmin.

C) The Vaishyas were skilled farmers and merchants. They occasionally had leadership positions in local villages.

D) The unskilled workers were of the Sudras caste. Members of the Sudras caste often worked on the farms of the people of higher castes.

Many Brahmin priests believed contact with lower castes would contaminate their souls. Vedic prayers were considered so pure that they could not be recited or even heard by a person of a lower caste. One Indian law stated that if a Sudras was caught listening to the Vedas, molten lead was to be poured into his ears. Foreigners, lawbreakers, people from isolated tribes, and people suffering from contagious diseases lived outside it. These untouchables or “outcastes” were traditionally regarded as unsuitable for personal relations with people who belonged to a caste. Caste members were vegetarians, which meant that people who ate meat or fish were not accepted into their society. Untouchables were hired to do work that members of the caste system would not do.  These jobs included killing or disposing of dead cattle or working with their hides. The untouchables also worked as sweepers, washers, or in other jobs that required contact with human emissions such as sweat, urine, or feces. Untouchables were often forbidden to enter temples, schools and wells where caste members drew water. In some parts of India, even the sight of untouchables was thought to be polluting. The untouchables were often forced to sleep during the day and work at night.

19. karma
The spiritual principle of cause and effect where intent and actions of an individual influence the future of that individual. Good intent and good deed contribute to good versions of it and future happiness, while bad intent and bad deed contribute to bad versions of it and future suffering. It is closely associated with the idea of rebirth in many schools of Asian religions. In these schools, that status of it in the present affects one's future in the current life, as well as the nature and quality of future lives. The concept is central to the plot of the television show My Name Is Earl.

20. dharma

In Hinduism, it is the religious and moral law governing individual conduct and is one of the four ends of life. In addition to the one that applies to everyone – consisting of truthfulness, non-injury, and generosity, among other virtue – there are also a specific ones  to be followed according to one’s class, status, and station in life. It constitutes the subject matter of the religious manuals that are the earliest source of Hindu law, and in the course of time has been extended into lengthy compilations of law. In Buddhism, it is the doctrine, the universal truth common to all individuals at all times

21. bhakti

In Hinduism, a movement emphasizing the mutual intense emotional attachment and love of a devotee toward a personal god and of the god for the devotee. According to the Bhagavadgita, a Hindu religious text, the path of it is superior to the two other religious approaches, the path of knowledge (jnana) and the path of ritual and good works (karma).

22. Buddhism

Founded by Suddhartha Gautama in the area between 566 and 480 BCE, it is a spin off from Hinduism. The son of an Indian warrior-king, Gautama led an extravagant life through early adulthood, reveling in the privileges of his social caste. But when he bored of the indulgences of royal life, Gautama wandered into the world in search of understanding. After encountering an old man, an ill man, a corpse and an ascetic, Gautama was convinced that suffering lay at the end of all existence. He renounced his princely title and became a monk, depriving himself of worldly possessions in the hope of comprehending the truth of the world around him. The culmination of his search came while meditating beneath a tree, where he finally understood how to be free from suffering, and ultimately, to achieve salvation, and the key element of this was to eliminate desire. He spent the remainder of his life journeying about India, teaching others what he had come to understand. The religion had initial success in India, but had a much greater success when it moved along trade routes to China, where most of it followers live today. It is also the main religion of Sri Lanka, an island off the coast of India.

23. The Four Noble Truths

They are the truth of suffering, the truth of the cause of suffering, the truth of the end of suffering, and the truth of the path that leads to the end of suffering. More simply put, suffering exists; it has a cause; it has an end; and it has a cause to bring about its end. They are a contingency plan for dealing with the suffering humanity faces -- suffering of a physical kind, or of a mental nature.

The First identifies the presence of suffering.

The Second, on the other hand, seeks to determine the cause of suffering. In Buddhism, desire and ignorance lie at the root of suffering. By desire, Buddhists refer to craving pleasure, material goods, and immortality, all of which are wants that can never be satisfied. As a result, desiring them can only bring suffering. Ignorance, in comparison, relates to not seeing the world as it actually is. Without the capacity for mental concentration and insight, Buddhism explains, one's mind is left undeveloped, unable to grasp the true nature of things. Vices, such as greed, envy, hatred and anger, derive from this ignorance.

The Third has dual meaning, suggesting either the end of suffering in this life, on earth, or in the spiritual life, through achieving Nirvana. When one has achieved Nirvana, which is a transcendent state free from suffering and our worldly cycle of birth and rebirth, spiritual enlightenment has been reached.

The Fourth charts the method for attaining the end of suffering, known to Buddhists as the Noble Eightfold Path. The steps of the Noble Eightfold Path are Right Understanding, Right Thought, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness and Right Concentration.

24. Nirvana

In Buddhism, the imperturbable stillness of mind after the fires of desire, aversion, and delusion have been finally extinguished. In Hindu philosophy, it is the union with Brahman, the divine ground of existence, and the experience of blissful egolessness. In Indian religions, the attainment of it is liberation from the repeating cycle of birth, life and death.

25. Moche
Andean civilization that flourished from the 1st to the 8th century ce on the northern coast of what is now Peru. The name is taken from the great site of the same name, in the river valley of the same name, which appears to have been the capital or chief city of thesepeoples. Their settlements extended along the hot, arid coast of northern Peru from the Lambayeque River valley south for more than 215 miles to the Nepeña River valley. In order for the culture to flourish, it was necessary for them to complete massive irrigation projects, cutting through the Andes mountains to get water from the Amazon River to the coast. Because of this, most over their religion and imagery is centered around the flow of fluids.

26. The Decapitator

A Moche god frequently depicted as a spider, but sometimes as a winged creature or a sea monster: together all three features symbolize land, water and air. When the body is included, the figure is usually shown with one arm holding a knife and another holding a severed head by the hair; it has also been depicted as "a human figure with a tiger's mouth and snarling fangs" It is thought to have figured prominently in the beliefs surrounding the practice of sacrifice.

27. stirrup pot

A type of ceramic vessel common among several Pre-Columbian cultures of South America beginning in the early 2nd millennium BCE. These cultures included the Chavin and the Moche. In these vessels, the handle actually forms part of the spout, which allows the water to flow around one’s hand while pouring out of the jar. The jars, which were often elaborately figurative, would be cast from a mold, while the spout was built by hand and welded to the vessel with slip. The Moche fascination with the flow of liquid figures heavily with these vessels, not only because you can feel the water as you pour, but also because of the main part of the jar was often molded into scenes of graphic violence or sex.

28. Huaca del Sol

An adobe brick temple built by the Moche civilization (100 CE to 800 CE) on the northern coast of what is now Peru. The temple is one of several ruins found near the volcanic peak of Cerro Blanco, in the coastal desert near Trujillo at the Moche Valley. By 450 CE, eight different stages of construction had been completed on it. The technique was additive; new layers of brick were laid directly on top of the old, hence large quantities of bricks were required for the construction. Archeologists have estimated that it was composed of over 130 million adobe bricks and was the largest pre-Columbian adobe structure built in the Americas. The temple appears to have been used for ritual, ceremonial activities and as a royal residence and burial chambers. During the Spanish occupation of Peru in the early 17th century, colonists redirected the waters of the Moche River to run past the base of it in order to facilitate the looting of gold artifacts from the temple. The operation of the hydraulic mine greatly damaged it. In total, approximately two-thirds of the structure has been lost to erosion and such looting. The remaining structure stands at a height of 41 meters

29. Huaca de la Luna

The smaller of the two adobe brick structers built by the Moche in northern Peru near the capital city of Cerro Blanco. Though it is the smaller of the two temples at the site, has yielded the most archaeological information. The larger temple was partially destroyed and looted by Spanish conquistadors in the 17th century, while this temple was left relatively untouched. Archeologists believe that the larger temple may have served for administrative, military, and residential functions, as well as a burial mound for the Moche elite. This smaller temple served primarily a ceremonial and religious function, though it contains burials as well.

30. Nazca

Culture that flourished from 100 BCE to 800 CE beside the dry southern coast of Peru in the river valleys of the same name’s drainage and the Ica Valley. Having been heavily influenced by the preceding Paracas culture, which was known for extremely complex textiles, they produced an array of beautiful crafts and technologies such as ceramics, textiles, and geoglyphs (giant lines in the Earth named after them). They also built an impressive system of underground aqueducts, known as puquios, that still function today. The were contemporaries of the Moche to the south of that civilization.

31. Nazca Lines

A series of ancient geoglyphs located in the desert in southern Peru. They were designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1994. The high, arid plateau stretches more than 50 miles on the Pampas de Jumana about 400 km south of Lima. Although some local geoglyphs resemble Paracas motifs, scholars believe these were created by their namesake culture between 500 BCE and 500 CE. The hundreds of individual figures range in complexity from simple lines to stylized hummingbirds, spiders, monkeys, fish, sharks, orcas, and lizards.

32. puquios

An old system of aqueducts near the city of Nazca, Peru. Out of 36, most are still functioning and relied upon to bring fresh water into the arid desert. They have never been fully mapped, nor have any been excavated. Some archaeologists contend that they were built by Pre-Columbian Nazca architects around 540 CE in response to two prolonged droughts during that time, others doubt that. There is a general lack of historical reference both after and prior to the Spanish Empire. The first historical writing of their existence was in 1605 by Reginaldo de Lizárraga, which some contend may indicate that they were built by the Spanish, though the Spanish writings contain no record of this.

33. El Nino

It is defined by prolonged warming in the Pacific Ocean sea surface temperatures when compared with the average value. Every two to seven years, trade winds shift and sea surface temperatures warm in the Pacific, creating the meteorological event. As conditions change, they trigger a domino effect of disruptive weather patterns worldwide. Normally, trade winds blow east to west across the Pacific Ocean. This pushes warmer water towards the western edge and allows cooler water to rise up toward the surface on the eastern edge. During these events, trade winds weaken or change course, pushing that warm ocean water on the west further east across the ocean, bringing rainfall and rising surface temperatures along with it. While unpredictable, these episodes tend to last nine to 12 months, peaking in the depths of winter and fizzling out by late spring.

34. Olmec

The mysterious civilization prospered in Pre-Classical  Mesoamerica from c. 1200 BCE to c. 400 BCE and is generally considered the forerunner of all subsequent Mesoamerican cultures such as the Maya and Aztecs. Centred in the Gulf of Mexico (now the states of Veracruz and Tabasco) their influence and trade activity spread from 1200 BCE, even reaching as far south as present-day Nicaragua. Monumental sacred complexes, massive stone sculpture, ball games, chocolate drinking and animal gods were features of Olmec culture which would be passed on to all those who followed this first great Mesoamerican civilization. It presents something of a mystery, indeed, we do not even know what they called themselves, as the name we use is their Aztec name and meant ‘rubber people’. Due to a lack of archaeological evidence their ethnic origins and the location and extent of many of their settlements are not known. They did, however, codify and record their gods and religious practices using symbols. Their practices of sacrifice, cave rituals, pilgrimages, offerings, ball-courts, pyramids and a seeming awe of mirrors, was also passed on to all subsequent civilizations in Mesoamerica until the Spanish Conquest in the 16th century CE.  

35. Mesoamerican ball game

The sport known by this simple name was played by all the major civilizations of the area from the Olmecs to the Aztecs. The impressive stone courts became a staple feature of a city’s sacred complex and there were often several playing courts in a single city. More than just a game, though, the event could have a religious significance and featured in mythology. The contests even supplied candidates for human sacrifice, for the sport could, quite literally, be a game of life or death. The game was invented sometime in the Preclassical Period (2500-100 BCE), probably by the Olmec. In local mythology the game is an important element in the story of the Maya gods Hun Hunahpú and Vucub Hunahpú. The pair annoyed the gods of the underworld with their noisy playing and the two brothers were tricked into descending into Xibalba (the underworld) where they were challenged to a ball game. Losing the game, Hun Hunahpús had his head cut off; a foretaste of what would become common practice for players unfortunate enough to lose a game.

36. colossal heads

Sculptures of the Olmec civilization of the Gulf Coast of Mexico (1200 BCE - 400 BCE) that are amongst the most mysterious and debated artifacts from the ancient world. The most agreed upon theory they represent Olmec rulers. Seventeen have been discovered to date, 10 of which are from San Lorenzo and four from La Venta; two of the most important Olmec centres. The heads were each carved from a single basalt boulder which in some cases were transported 100 km or more to their final destination, presumably using huge balsa river rafts wherever possible and log rollers on land. They can be nearly 9.8 feet high, 14.7 feet in circumference and average around eight tons in weight. They were sculpted using hard hand-held stones and it is likely that they were originally painted using bright colors.

37. Maya

An indigenous people of Mexico and Central America who have continuously inhabited the lands comprising modern-day Yucatan, Quintana Roo, Campeche, Tabasco, and Chiapas in Mexico and southward through Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador and Honduras. They have intrigued the world since their `discovery’ in the 1840's by John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood but, in reality, much of the culture is not that mysterious when understood. Contrary to popular imagination, they did not vanish and the descendants of the people who built the great cities of Chichen Itza, Bonampak, Uxmal and Altun Ha still exist on the same lands their ancestors did and continue to practice, sometimes in a modified form, the same rituals which would be recognized by a native of the land one thousand years ago. Their classic era lasted from 250-950 CE. This period was the height of their civilization in which they perfected mathematics, astronomy, architecture and the visual arts and also refined and perfected the calendar. The oldest date recorded in this era is on Stele 29 in the city of Tikal (292 CE) and the latest is from an inscription on the Stele at the site of Tonina (909 CE). The city-states of the civilization stretched from Piste in the north all the way down to modern-day Honduras.

38. Tikal

Located in the north of the Petén region of Guatemala, it was a major Maya city which flourished between 300 and 850 CE. The city, known to the Maya themselves as Mutul, is one of the grandest in Mesoamerica. Amongst the first Maya cities to gain prominence in the Early Classic period (250-600 CE), it built its wealth by exploiting its natural resources and geographical location to become a Maya superpower, a status it also enjoyed in the 7th century CE when some of the site's most impressive later monuments were constructed. In 378 CE it was invaded by forces from distant Teotihuacan (or at the very least trade contacts were established) with a consequent influence on the cultural practices of the city, from clothes to art and architecture. From the late 4th century CE, it was able to further expand its sphere of influence and conquer long-time local rivals Uaxactún and Rio Azul, and the city formed useful alliances with such centres as Kaminaljuyú. At its height its population, including the scattered urban settlements around the city, was over 50,000, and it utilized some 200 square kilometres of surrounding territory.

39. Calakmul

A major Maya power within the northern Petén Basin region of the Yucatán Peninsula of southern Mexico. It administered a large domain marked by the extensive distribution of their emblem glyph of the snake head sign, to be read "Kaan". It was the seat of what has been dubbed the Kingdom of the Snake or Snake Kingdom. This Snake Kingdom reigned during most of the Classic period. The city itself is estimated to have had a population of 50,000 people and had governance, at times, over places as far away as 150 kilometers. There are 6,750 ancient structures identified there; the largest of which is the great pyramid at the site. Throughout the Classic Period, it maintained an intense rivalry with Tikal to the south, and the political maneuvering of these two cities have been likened to a struggle between two Maya superpowers. The city was known for being surrounded by an extensive network of canals and reservoirs and controlling water in the area.

40. obsidian

An igneous rock that forms when molten rock material cools so rapidly that atoms are unable to arrange themselves into a crystalline structure. It is an amorphous material known as a "mineraloid." The result is a volcanic glass with a smooth uniform texture that breaks with a conchoidal fracture. Because of these properties, it was used as the blade in a variety of Mesoamerican weapons.

41. Teotihuacan

It was massive, one of the first great cities of the Western Hemisphere. And its origins are a mystery. It was built by hand more than a thousand years before the swooping arrival of the Nahuatl-speaking Aztec in central Mexico. But it was the Aztec, descending on the abandoned site, no doubt falling awestruck by what they saw, who gave it its name. A famed archaeological site located fewer than 30 miles from Mexico City, it reached its zenith between 100 BCE and 650 CE. It covered eight square miles and supported a population of a hundred thousand. It was the largest city anywhere in the Western Hemisphere before the 1400s. Oddly, though it contains a massive central road (the Avenue of the Dead) and buildings including the Temple of the Sun and the Temple of the Moon, has no military structures—though experts say the military and cultural wake of it was heavily felt throughout the region. The city may have lasted until sometime between the 7th and 8th centuries CE, but its major monuments were sacked and systematically burned around 550 CE.

42. Chichen Itza

Perhaps the largest, most famous and most accessible Mayan site, about 125 kilometres west of Cancun and Cozumel. This city flourished from 600-1200 CE/ The focal point of the region is the towering Castillo pyramid, which is fraught with cosmological symbolism. Its four sides contain 365 steps (depicting the solar year), 52 panels (for each year in the Mayan century as well as each week in the solar year) and 18 terraces (for the 18 months in the religious year). Inside, the Castillo is an interesting temple accessible up a narrow stairway. It also has an enormous ball court where the Mesoamerican ball game was played. It is the largest ever found and is lined with fascinating carvings that display the rules and details of the sacred game.

43. Arawak
        
A group of indigenous peoples of South America and historically of the Caribbean. Specifically, the term "Arawak" has been applied at various times to the Lokono of South America and the Taíno, who historically lived in the Greater Antilles and northern Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean, all of whom spoke related languages. They were also historically known as the Taíno, a term meaning "good" or "noble" that some islanders used to distinguish their group from the neighboring Island Caribs. They were the more peaceful natives upon the arrival of Christopher Columbus.

44. Caribs

An indigenous people of the Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean. They may have descended from the Kalina of South America, but they spoke an unrelated language. At the time of Spanish contact, they were one of the dominant groups in the Caribbean, which owes its name to them. They lived throughout the Windward Islands, Dominica, and possibly the southern Leeward Islands. In the early colonial period they had a reputation as warriors who raided neighboring islands. Early Europeans claimed that they practiced cannibalism – the word "cannibal" derives from a corruption of their name. However, Europeans may have embellished these aspects to rationalize enslaving them.

45. Clovis culture

A prehistoric Paleo-Indian culture, named after distinct stone tools found at sites near Mexico. They are considered to be the ancestors of most of the indigenous cultures of the Americas, living from roughly 13,200 to 12,900 years ago.  A hallmark of the toolkit associated with the culture is the distinctively shaped, fluted stone spear point, named after them. This spear point is bifacial and typically fluted on both sides. Archaeologists do not agree on whether the widespread presence of these artifacts indicates the proliferation of a single people, or the adoption of a superior technology by diverse population groups.

46. Ancestral Pueblo culture

An ancient Native American culture that spanned the present-day Four Corners region of the United States, comprising southern Utah, northern Arizona, northwestern New Mexico, and southwestern Colorado.  They lived in a range of structures that included small family pit houses, larger clan type structures, grand pueblos, and cliff sited dwellings. They possessed a complex network that stretched across the Colorado Plateau linking hundreds of communities and population centers. They held a distinct knowledge of celestial sciences that found form in their architecture. The Kiva, a congregational space that was used for ceremonial purposes chiefly, were an integral part of this ancient peoples community structure. In contemporary times, the people and their archaeological culture were referred to as Anasazi for historical purposes, a name which arises from the Navajo language. However, their descendants do not prefer this term since it loosely translates to “ancient ones of our enemies”.

47. teosinte

The common name for a group of four annual and perennial species of the genus Zea native to Mexico and Central America. Their plants are taller and broader-leaved than most grasses. Their general growth form is similar to that of maize, although they have much longer lateral branches. The name is of Nahuátl Indian origin, and it has been interpreted to mean “grain of the gods”. Some species are distinct from maize both genetically and taxonomically, and they appear not to have played any role in the origin of maize. However, one form, known as Z. mays ssp. parviglumis, shares a particularly close genetic relationship with maize and available evidence indicates that it is the direct ancestor of maize.

48. llamas

A domesticated South American camelid, widely used as a meat and pack animal by Andean cultures since pre-Hispanic times. They are significant in that no other pack animals were native to the South American continent. Since pack animals historically spread disease, the limit of pack animals in the Americas meant that the native population was susceptible to many diseases upon first contact with Europeans. They are very social animals and live together as a herd. The wool produced by a them is very soft and lanolin-free. They are intelligent and can learn simple tasks after a few repetitions. When using a pack, they can carry about 25% to 30% of their body weight for five to eight miles.